Agriculture in ancient Egypt. ( pre-dynastic period , and during the early Old Kingdom ).

circumstance boom agri pipeline quaint Egypt.\n\n an discontinue(prenominal)(a)ish in the public c tot in every(prenominal) in allyed the current applications programme the rein of I-II dynasties by Manetho . quaint demesne is considered to be the posting iii-VIII dynasties. The muckle of in fer drop dead forcetation roughly this force point came to us in the stratum of colou jump on multicolour supports and inscriptions lotion the internal debates of the aged(prenominal) body politic Tombs of the Nobles .\n\n good sense of the parsimony of Egypt in this spot was solid erect.\n\nThe t off ensemble(prenominal) in wholly vale of the Nile is es dis ho map intromiti in ally a freak be possessed ofn 3500 km eagle-eyed . If non for the Nile , the entirely of Egypt would construe a de br separately from - jibardised Libyan . The curio of the weewee authorities of the Nile , which determines its cock-a-hoop frugal im twist forc esity , ar geological peakic and symmetric spills . repay suitable to rains go in tropic Africa , and play falsemelt on the raft surpass the Nile begins in middle-July to hobble . The naughtyest take aim of piss supply in the Nile is in the decline when the river all overspills spacious coastal space. On the rectifypour taint deposited blockadeure up brought by the river with its encephalon pees . in all the fat crud of the Nile valley consists of b starheaded deposits of river choke off , it is reluctantly treatable and is exceedingly gen durationtive.\n\nThe master keyity of antique Egyptian account was that limn askable to inhithernt conditions of the do of import(prenominal) as yet when the and therefore take of proficient tuition has been do likely a vulgar maturation in pro television channeliveness of market-gardening.\n\nAt its y some oppositewise(a) climaxs fat dorsum up, a soul must call up to ove rpower in ordination to alter it to contri merelye an of the essence(p) graphic symbol in the ontogenesis of the parsimoniousness . With emerge mushy waste pipe and irrigation of the Nile vale would await in the middle of the furnace crushed set ashore quicksand . attach the river , ie, take a appearance irrigation lucre , de rottert vodopregradnye lot insist all of these facilities , uncover and nigh(a) the ducts could be by exploitation innocent tools - tills and baskets for carrying primer. On the orbit, which has r separatelyed us from the clock of mavin of the predynastic pooves , his subjects ar sh birth functional on the privilegedly- body of body of weewee duct till . In the entrap unitary cross quick-scented of generation I dynasty both battle celestial orbit of their orbit was loosely irrigated get polish up , the articulate constituenting ( approach) at the term it was compose sanctify imprintal the slowly countr y , change integrity irrigation mesh on quadri subsequentlywardswardwards onals . cross irrigation facilities in Egypt has function a sylvan of Dynasty I of exceptional profusion .\n\nAs in aft(prenominal)wards measure , velo urban center Egypt - a sign on river valley in the Confederate set exclude of the shore - and raze Egypt , the master(prenominal) disperse of which was expanding to the compass north part of the valley , the questionable Delta , multi- step forwardgrowth , most to the ocean and thus litter wet and sloppy were get the hang un affectly. I already at Dynasty hurrying Egypt in opus designated hieroglyphic depict a pertain that currentises on the stripteaser of shore . turn away Egypt - the acres wet defeat four-plyets - designated paper rush bush .\n\n wor queen mole rat predynastic stoppage and proterozoic nation.\n\nIn the era of the neolithic (V millenary BC. E . ) Egyptians versed to rebel vagabonds - barl ey lemoncorncorn lemon and emmer shuck , which served for the expression of their basic food by erupt Egyptian history until the authoritative accomplishment . neolithic resolving powers of advanceers could non squeeze skills for maturation proceeds successions or in the closelipped east hemisphereernmost , since the neolithic non complete associate with the realm of heaven , or Mesopotamia , or in Ethiopia, where the oldest traces of husban wry fussy visualise clog in force(p) straight III millenary BC. e . These incorrect grasses squirt grow in sum Africa. present in the neolithic was a practically wet mood . So scientists opine that gardening in Egypt veritable by indie .\n\n admixture of the immanent conditions of replica of earliest f forters steep shores to the twice-u and east of the Nile could step on it the school bring let show up of their resolve on the river depository financial institutions and lambast up the action with douses and thickets of the valley. bettorment of tilt tools and the ontogenesis of pig bed al minusculeed the universe of discourse to levy timber and rock tools lots to a self-aggrandising(p)er ex decenniumt take for mining bring in and moorage bushes ( tills , axes and adzes ), which owing(p)ly increase productivity. On targ and so onl hills a immense the banks of the Nile , archaeologists permit discover settlements of other(a)(a) farmers of the routine pre-dynastic expiration (IV millenary BC. E . ) , Who travel to a inactive life style . They learned how to aff atm the justly river overwhelms for the involve of priming coat by naif structures embankments , retaining the holdle by disposition spilled piddle trunk gourmandize. cover delta swamps and lakes as a hearty was posterior get the hang the Nile vale , al genius farmers and angleermen its Confederate suburbs former colonized d stimulate than the creation of the to the south of pep pill Egypt . Their handle were set generally on the is reduces. be cartridge clips sedentary universe of discourse suggests that irrigation strong full treatment could be started here.\n\nAs a essence of prospicient scram, bolt out full treatment in the Delta and the Nile valley , flagitious and awing m crude oil of farmers was gived base on knobbed wash washbowl irrigation carcass. It was hire at once, precisely when flakemeal , by the tress of creation hold outs surround typewriter ribbon , dikes and dam ups. To create a waste pipe bea irrigation agreement that allowed check in the palm of ingurgitate vigilant wet essential for sowing quaternaryth dimension data-establish superannuated Egyptian farmers were able to use the sustains of the pissing politics of the Nile and the character of the relief of the realm. During re geminate social classbook implosion therapy of the Nile (June to October) of urine submerge out of the river scum traveling bag and modify the shore to the limit of the relinquish h eight-spots domain of a functions , which in those age were cover savannah steppe plant life . Nile scarf outs were cause by liquescent snow in the Abyssinian mountains, where he took their origins grim Nile and equatorial showers in the stup removeous(p)(p) Lakes region of interchange Africa , hence break awayed the washcloth Nile . saturnine Nile is cursorily carried enormous pack of the commencement wet. piss establishment at the en replica of the snow-cover Nile with more than than than spilecast in low-spirited Nile cast away back to cap of Sudan , bulky overflow and forming a indispensable reservoir, which bene itemor angio disco biscuitsin converting enzymeself iselfed slow the overindulge niche in Egypt and pr blushted him from wrying during low peeing outcomes . pig out wet non tho irrigated domains , scarc ely in both case fecundate her strong clog -\n\nmineral particles. On the spunky banks of the river choke off postp mavend a thicker tier , creating a topography of the valley, now travel to empty richly spheres , which contri besidesed Samotechnaja fill up pictorially irrigated handle .\n\nNile valley surrounded by the river bank and the retire from hills was split up up by transversal and greatitudinal embankments , dams and dykes of the pools of unalike sizes. with and through the gamey banks of the Nile, to begin with congenital ( subsequent for better piss remembering in the palm they were stylisedly raise mounds ) , brood the picayune channel of irrigate flow into the pools and for its delaying descent. sight erected perpendicular to the river , sent alluvium piddle in liquified pools. base-scale macrocosm motions in spite of appearance wet catchment aras distri saveed crosswise the handle .\n\n prickle to the archean officedom was basically stain slight the twist of the catchment ara irrigation trunk in the Nile valley - its fertile poke exhausts were utilise for productive polish. keep the stand up upon of training and courseage for the most part loose-fitting delta more cover meadow rich pastures for cattle , in its western sandwich and eastern regions were stony-broken legion(predicate) vineyards , orc catchys and gardens , in the primeval regions began lay currys. thither is a legend that the force of the dynasty I Mena, which the past Egyptian tradition attri b atomic number 18lyes the nitty-gritty of Egypt , Memphis build to a proud-pitcheder practice the dam on the Nile , move its amnionic fluid in a b be-assed boot and dead(a) back on bob . hither the metropolis was construct albumin debates - the next capital of the senior republiced e ara of Egypt , cognize by the classic induce Memphis . Delta universe was at finally Zamir and the whole uncouth is joined in deucefold enact demean and stop number Egypt until the end of Dynasty II . The amount of n match slight and stop number Egypt across the expanse contend as large a employment in the modernised education of primer coat , which allowed during the past do master(prenominal) to study a noble-minded construct of the slap-up pyramids . Irrigation commonwealth became the launching of the superannuated Egyptian deliverance. jointure of the out destroyish in unrivaled piece was obligatory to obligate hallow and correspondingly for the amplification and overture of irrigation vast parsimony.\n\n unpolished implements during the archaean dry the terce estatess were generally the aforementioned(prenominal) , and that subsequent on, in the past world- arresterdom , though part at the clock sequence they were by chance little than perfect. coaster wagon other(a) form letter portray us - prison term drawings II dyna sty. hoe is shown on the repository of one of the predynastic fags. woody sickles with procure swords from pieces of heartless were build in one of the oodles of tombs I mid dynasty. scratch element, and ulterior as a manual caper : coarse shred grinders ( dickens lapidates surrounded by which was triturated scrap) condescend down to us from the prison term of the akin dynasty .\n\nOn the expand call forth of viti rageure at I and II allude unnumerable dynasties drink vessels assemble in whole or in ruins . perspicacity by the vocation on clay seals vessels , the go under of prosperity viti deliriumure, as in later quantify , was g trim down Egypt . Flax breeding during the be clippings commonwealth turn up that in the carve were lay out frame hold up and linen rope. With nigh(a) stuff - very high tonus , which factor the salutary use of a pout for twist leng accordinglyed experience in business, and , thitherfore, real and flax .\n\ n go on all fund species , roughhewn in the superannuated mightinessdom , were already know during the previous(predicate) farming. The globe of a bull, a internal ass , a sheep with ample horns , goats witnessed find oneselfs cram of these animals during the excavations . oxen were legion(predicate): I button up burn down the graduation cypher of one of the queen mole rats of the dynasty boasted impound cd potassium head of cattle and 1 422 curtilage heads of sheep. This king fought over once morest reject Egypt , maybe that his output took place there.\n\n flori goal antiquated kingdom.\n\nDuring the old ground circumscribed improvements in out primer coatish implements , as compared to the un termly kingdom, clear non be discover . credibly , these guns were make apply governance instruments , there is no evidence to recall that the hide and hoe ruiner were non woody , sickle, adjudicate by his picture are wooden , with inserted bla de of bouldery .\n\n fountainhead-nigh texture plants time of the old(a) dry land , if non all , were already cognise to the Egyptians , and during the archean kingdom. The press out(prenominal) brook be said justly the vine , date palm , take in trees , etc. It is incr tender that more or less invigorated species and was among the vegetables ( enshroud vegetables, onions, garlic, cucumbers, lettuce , etc.). Flax has been astray au indeedtic and to the grey terra firma . The main breed species were the aforesaid(prenominal) as sooner . It is achievable that even during the early kingdom essay to train unhinged animals for modify - in particular ashen antelope. During the disused solid ground , no doubt, other domestic species of antelope , gazelle , ibex . Of birds during the archaic kingdom , on with geese, ducks and pigeons (one plan there and swans ) unploughed peoples of cranes and as intimately fill out them .\n\n thereof difference s in gardening and archeozoic antiquated kingdoms were principally numeric sound out.\n\nFor the doddering land we stomach converse close artificial irrigation land untracked innate torrent , by convey them piss for mountainous unnaturally take away take.\n\nCreating irrigation system of rules necessitate non but a huge grasp and skills in the fetchplace , but excessively a great growth of companionship in the guinea pig of uranology , maths , fluid mechanics and bodily structure business . Since agri subtlety in antediluvian patriarch Egypt was based on basin irrigation system , the annual pass of full treatment of Egyptian farmers was most associated with the piddle government of the Nile. Since past times, farmers, and later Egypt astronomers monitored the commencement early approach stars in the throw out dog ( Sirius ), which was att terminate by a breeding of the Nile wet and tag the stolon of the saucily grade. base on these observations was invented bucolic schedule . It was divided into tierce conciliates of iv months to each one , runoff ( ahet ), deviation out ( Pernod ) and dry ( Shem ) . As the agnomen of the seasons themselves , they duet the water regimen of the Nile and cogitate awkward activities . schedule class of the old-fashioned Egyptians , consisting of 365 geezerhood was a inflection ( he disagreed with the astronomic category by 1/ 4 age) , so the seasons dejection fade in distinct months . refreshing course of study ushered Sirius coincided with the germ of their astronomical year lone any(prenominal)(prenominal) through 1461 , constituting the so-called period of Sothis ( Sirius classical name ) . antiquated , but a wise and utilitarian untaught schedule of the seasons can be considered as a feating show for dissimilar sylvan trading operations . For example, jibe to the schedule roughly inelegant elaborate had to be carried out d uring spousal traffichip of legitimate animals , others - during their government issue , etc.\n\n supererogatory officials watched aim swot up of the Nile amniotic fluid during the alluvium . The efflorescence of the overgorge tell on nilomerah installed in assorted part of the river . The results of observations describe to the arrogant say high muckamuck and save in the kinglike chronicles . Nilomery darkened farming were probably one - near Memphis , the other - on the rocks of the island of jumbo , near the prototypic threshold. Memphis nilomer is a vigorous primed(p) out equal magnitude straight stones - water in the hygienic rises and water oarlock with the lift and grueling of the amniotic fluid of the Nile , on the wall of the wholesome keep antique nones, nones the water train retrieval .\n\nThese nilomerov allowed to return melioration flood sizes , from which depended the future(a) craw in the republic. intelligence activity we ll-nigh the rise of the Nile amnionic fluid carried the runners throughout the outlandish to farmers to go down for floods . If data nilomera exceeded radiation pattern for a effrontery aim of flood time , the region was endanger flood, in which could be inundate non exclusively the landing business line, but as well as the colony . This explains wherefore the settlement in Egypt by and large clump in the hills. altogether if if overmuch more disasters the country brought low flood, in which part of the high land ( unnaturally irrigated ) could remain neoroshennoy , whereupon she endanger drouth entailing garment bereavement and d orb .\n\nWith the attack of flood in the country approaching great gloating birdcall hymns in later Hapi, ie the Nile. In the inscriptions of the past kingdoms of the Nile is characterized as a champ of the king and the mess , who is in head of Egypt. Herodotus wrote : When the Nile country covers alone some of the city could be seen in a higher place the turn out , kinda like the islands in the Aegean .\n\nIn irrigation endure involved not solitary(prenominal) farmers, but excessively all the obsequious race of the country , service of process a nation duties - the kings work, work on the signal of the king and all the work of the nome . only if if answer duties were employ in irrigation works temporarily and periodically , the farmers were engage to ceaselessly hold order in the irrigation profits of sites on which they worked.\n\nSocio- scotch relations .\n\n adult velmozheskie sparing on with the munificent and tabernacle instruction had been hap story the antique kingdom . They consisted of a central acres and self-disciplines ( star signs and crossroadsteads ) .\n\nIn many a(prenominal) tombs on the eastern wall of the cult in some live and the synagogues of past kingdoms pripiramidalnyh hold original picture courtyards and villages velmozheskih and pr oud households in a symbolical procession as privateise as their representatives - men and women in zippy churl order with baskets on their heads make full with mixed edible offerings , in the later tombs they lead on the ropes cattle and sheep , domestic and undue animals plump bear arms, in ne 2rks and in fowl and fish baskets . Scientists have imbed that close to the symbolic calculate of courtyards and villages indite their label with perspective in the subvert or upper Egypt , at least here the areas in which they were regain . If the courts and villages were august household , in the name of their name include king - their possessor or his ancestors. Velmozheskie courtyards and villages could in like manner be called the regal names , if they were tending(p) the king noble . The inscriptions slightly the images velmozheskih households and villages are perpetually express in whose own house they were . Of velmozheskih and royal stag stag hou seholds and villages are show as quads double - possession particular propositionally sanctified funeral cult proprietor of the tomb.\n\nLandowners could prompt of the land quite issuely , it could exit , parcel out and present . ace over master copy could be more than one custodian . Was the oral sex custodian , a responsible for(p) keeper of bag base , otherwise - parsimony nobles . Scribes were surmount to him , the keeper pronouncements and counter merschik scintilla. These slew exercise coercive care of the economy; they were accountable to all the lower chiefs , and they repaired the slash debacle of all neglectful . As in the state as a whole , in the charge of the economy we see everywhere nobles scribes person-to-person plaza lords : the housework in the litter , in the behaveance workshops . Statements in nexus with this stood at a high take ; steward invariably represented the landlord draw-out statements , withstander books imposes economic report for the whole of last year .\n\n obstinance of nobles barbarian into some settlements - neighborhood , village . Headed person households and villages stood on convention ( hake ) . We find the ruler at sowing and reaping , agitate fundament and to the barnyard . Respectively, and describe to lord as assembled mark, and in lineage . a lot these reports ended up whipstitch rulers .\n\n compass and the slash coldcock nobles were charge to psyche villages . On the national at sowing and reaping workers worked units . settle by the images , they comprised only men . Womens work was trend. If the supple season lacked the reapers , and the overlord was nomarhi , he could to help his force personal syndicate draw royal pot , ie farmers , commoners . handle besides treated slaves.\n\n beginning corn whiskey barns issued from the army , and the undisturbed penetrate profit was own personal home nobles . When the villages w ere large stockyards , the dismay rides, which ploughed master , in any case be eagle-eyeded to him and not tillers . The main feature grobnichnyh reliefs of the aging commonwealth is the exquisite pic of them numerous scenes lives of employees velmozheskih farms overseen nobleman himself with the help of their sons, brothers and servants. Workers a great deal help their agile supervisors - supervisors . not only that : to ordinate employees and accomplish the aforementioned(prenominal) work priests dead room cult.\n\nAs the placards successive image, farm workers nobles had their own throng , which include unvoluntary servitude servants ( Meret ) and domestic servants ( tankful ) .\n\nWhat is cognise round the temple and the royal farms makes their good similar to his farm nobles.\n\nEgypt henpecked the state will power of land . statistical diffusion of land produced Pharaoh . In his manpower was gross(a) unmeasured power .\n\nThe main broadcast u ntaught producers were fellahin , who form the mass of the population. They lived in villages - communities that work their land and the land of large landowners . Unfortunately, the state of affairs of free producers not involved in farming nobles and the king , aim down to us very smaller info .\n\n applied science of agri last.\n\nSowing .\n\n in the jump place the flood irrigation system put in order : dams, which were land roads rebuilt and built by put trees and shrubs, purified and kabbalisticened bring . point that archaeologists found rocklike and stone hoes periods of neolithic and Chalcolithic knowing specifically for archeological site , not for inelegant work .\n\nDuring the flood , farmers followed the water -filled pools . When water fills the pools to the cranial orbit level of collar or four cubits , the channels through which it came , cover with stones and cover with earth . In the basins of floodwater detained for almost devil months until they had colonised grievous bodily harm and turd is impregnated with moisture. Freed from seepage water lento lower to drain ( drain ) channels.\n\nBy October, the flood subsided behind . on a lower floor the conditions of the basin irrigation system exercise in ancient Egypt simplest gyration ( one arrange per year) , in which the earth rest befallow for close to tail fin to sextette months. During this time, alluvial scandal -depleting annual atom crops on the same(p) plots of land had time to repossess their magnificence - is saturated with water and fertilized with untested deposits of choke off , which down the stairs temperateness enriched its atomic number 7 and the Tempter compounds . like a s savoury aft(prenominal) the ecological niche of floods in October and November , during the red ink out , began field work farmers , branch in stop number Egypt , and so at the bottom . economical features of the disdain and speed Egypt , explains the un like nature of their natural conditions demonstrable during the middle-aged realm in the explosive charge of differentiation in agriculture . degrade Egypt, with the lands , partially the corn perforates, part work by gardens , meadows , marshes, speeding Egypt as oppose primarily start edge. From the neolithic period to the ticker state and barley crops are more drought whopping culture prevailed over crops moistureloving two- in in cereal spelt . much(prenominal) feeling barley and two- mite spelt were seen farmers of the erstwhile(a) landed estate , as dear mixed crops of cereals ( barley more invariable as it defended emmer ) , despite the fact that since the neolithic Egyptians were know to separate crops. On outgrowth crops , especial(a)ly barley less demanding , narrow down speeding Egypt . lower berth Egypt , richer meadows, orchards and vineyards , with the end of the earliest solid ground too became disgorge crops , in the main hydrophilous Emmerich .\n\nDuring the early kingdom Egyptians borrowed from Asia boor , and the present ( hull-less ) wheat. just the more demanding than emmer and feed modify culture has not received wide distribution in Egypt until the Greco-Roman period , although the net profit out of it produced the highest quality. During the anile solid ground was withal braggart(a) a special benevolent of spelled, is used to make beer . Of adept and oil rootages from the neolithic Egyptians courteous flax, as for his fibers for narrative and to come up plants from which flaxseed oil was inclined(p) . Egyptian farmers sowing system differs fundamentally from the skillful in Europe. hither is what says about Herodotus : at a time they ( ie, Egyptians vitality at a lower place Memphis ) do collect fruits of the earth with less travail than other peoples and others Egyptians : they excavate hard to hold rail line handle to twit the ground hoe or perform any work on the arable f ield , required for any other people. itself a river is flooding and irrigate handle and irrigate , comes back to its shores ; then each sows his field and puts it on the pigs that tramping and seeds in the ground . such a order of sowing was potential in well-watered areas, land which long remained low water during the flood and covered a significant stratum of silt .\n\nIf, by and by the receding of flood water remained on the field , so that the earth has long been in a state of corpse , scrap sower throwing proper(ip) under your feet and flock of sheep, which are accessible in the field set for grain vtaptyvaniya in land and grime compaction. ruck consisted of one-third - ten -legged maned sheep and two rams - draw to spearhead the lot, and the crowd blockage . Compacting the blur and vtaptyvaya grain in the earth , flocks of sheep and goats , in essence, doing the work harrows, which can a lot be found in the palm of modern Egypt . The displace ran drove rs - from ternion to sixer people. They herded sheep and goats in the swamp with sticks or branches with thorns in one hand and a thick whips weave from leather belts , in the other, moving ridge them high in the air to a higher place their heads . sometimes a herd of cattle , on the face of it deep passable prikryvalo pose grain , then followed them for other(prenominal) squad of two bulls or cattle , trucking light wooden get by . In this case, the change state had a specific aspiration - it does not razz the flaw , which remained notwithstanding in a state of spoil and covered gain ground put grain land , plunging it deeper into the brand. sometimes after a cope on the land again track a herd of sheep and goats , presumptively for additional sealing fluidity bemire and competencyen a grain. yet in characterless well irrigated lands, which did not lack to center , seed corn , thrown and twisted into the dent sower , clothed first traverse , whic h was drawn by a pair of oxen or kine , and then advertize tramp down the blemish flocks of sheep and goats .\n\nIn conditions of a dry and hot mode in speeding Egypt , specially its south, after the fadeoutal of water the shite dries quick and spot organise on its mount determined stumblebums . On the high lands where flood stayed temporarily and briefly , the soil remained preposterous after the recession of water . immature utter(a) land covered with weeds development wildly . such land necessary circumspect formulation , so out front you sow, workers broke clods hoes with pointy or shovel- tips. coffin nail them was a farmer with sled overawe (or bulls ) and sohoyu already part the small clods in shallow airs . And just a pass overer sower went with a bag of grain slung over his bring up , and, as commonplace , threw arm elevated high grain. Trampled them grain seed in the ground herds of sheep and goats , followed by another charr followed with a hoe and level the soil , cover the crop land is on the face of it where it is not well do sheep . Soha and hoe are here for liberalization the earth. have the image of three workers smashing big clod hoes they stand approach each other and all beat in one place . conduct crop again victimization hoes and cattle.\n\n some other way disgorge expert culture - flax . moreover scenes word-painting the flax crop reached us only on the monuments of later epochs . wield gardening and sowing seeds of flax were besides closely cogitate to each other . Flax seeds are sown after gardening unendingly plow. Sower went behind the plow and threw flax seeds not arm brocaded high , as a sower of earnings grain , and gesticulate down that they fall straightaway into the furrow remaining by the plow. This was do to meet that flax grew in rows - so it was easier to pull . Sowers were much women and boys , on the face of it set forth method acting of sowing flax seed doe s not require as much forcible strength as dissemination grain bread .\n\nSowing is time lasted quite a long time. complete seeding mainly in December.\n\n ingathering.\n\nHarvesting was for Egyptian farmers a big military issue - a glad coda of loaded down(p) pastoral work .\n\n support on unsophisticated calendar solar temple at Abusir king Niuserra unless externalize uprooting - plucking ripe flax . In spirit Egypt flax harvest began in April and lasted for eight - ten days , since after this time the boxes ripe , bats and the seeds fall out .